11-17-2025, 12:00 PM
Thread 10 — The Real Science of Batteries: Electrons, Ions & Why Voltage Exists
A Deep Dive Into Electrochemistry, Redox Flow, and Energy Storage
Everyone knows what a battery does —
it “stores energy.”
But *how* does it actually work?
Why does a battery have a fixed voltage?
Why does it die?
Why does it heat?
Why does a lithium cell explode if damaged?
This thread explains the true electrochemistry behind batteries —
from electron flow to ion migration to redox reactions.
1. A Battery Is Not a “Tank of Energy”
A battery is a chemical reactor with separated half-reactions.
Inside every battery:
• one material wants to give up electrons (oxidation)
• one wants to take electrons (reduction)
• electrons move through the circuit
• ions move inside the electrolyte to balance charge
Electricity is the movement of electrons.
Battery chemistry is the movement of ions.
2. The Anode & Cathode — The Real Roles
In a discharging battery:
Anode = oxidation site (loses electrons)
Cathode = reduction site (gains electrons)
Electrons flow:
anode → external circuit → cathode
Ions flow:
through the electrolyte
to maintain electrical neutrality.
This double-flow system is why batteries work.
3. Why Batteries Have a Fixed Voltage
Voltage comes from the difference in chemical potential energy
between the two electrodes.
Each chemical pair has a natural “eager to react” difference.
Examples:
• alkaline AA → 1.5 V
• nickel–metal hydride → 1.2 V
• Li-ion → 3.6–3.7 V
• LiFePO₄ → 3.2 V
• lead–acid → 2.1 V
Voltage is NOT about:
• size
• shape
• current
• capacity
It is entirely about chemistry.
4. The Electrolyte — Not Fuel, Not Power, Just Ions
The electrolyte does NOT conduct electrons.
It ONLY allows ion migration:
• Li⁺ in lithium batteries
• H⁺ or OH⁻ in alkaline cells
• SO₄²⁻ in lead–acid
It completes the internal circuit.
Without ion flow, electrons would stop moving →
battery instantly dies.
5. Why Batteries Die Over Time
Two main reasons:
A. Reactants run out
Electrode materials are consumed or converted into new compounds.
B. Internal resistance increases
Because of:
• electrode crystal growth
• SEI layer thickening
• electrolyte degradation
• dendrites
• corrosion
This reduces voltage under load.
Batteries don’t “run out of electricity” —
they run out of chemistry.
6. Lithium-Ion Batteries — Why They’re Special
Li-ion cells use:
• reversible intercalation chemistry
• layered crystal structures
• extremely high redox potentials
This gives:
• high energy density
• long cycle life
• stable voltage curves
But also risks:
• thermal runaway
• dendrite formation
• fires if punctured or overheated
Lithium cells store a LOT of energy in a small space —
which is both their power and their danger.
7. Charge & Discharge Are NOT Opposites
Charging forces electrons backward:
cathode → external supply → anode
At the same time:
• ions move the opposite way
• electrode structures re-expand
• crystal phases change
Charging is “rewinding a chemical reaction”
using external energy.
8. Capacity vs Voltage vs Current — The Three Battery Myths
Voltage → determined by chemistry
Capacity (mAh / Ah) → determined by amount of active material
Current (A) → determined by internal resistance & electrode design
They are independent.
A huge battery can have 1.5 V.
A tiny button cell can have 3 V.
9. Why Batteries Heat Up
Heat is produced when:
• internal resistance turns electrical power into heat
• fast charging forces ions through narrow channels
• chemical side-reactions occur
This is why:
• fast charging creates more heat
• old batteries run hotter
• low temperatures reduce ion mobility
10. The Future of Battery Chemistry
Research focuses on:
• solid-state lithium
• sodium-ion batteries
• sulfur cathodes
• silicon anodes
• flow batteries
• metal–air systems
• ultracapacitor hybrids
Each aims to increase:
• cycle life
• safety
• power density
• sustainability
Electrochemistry is one of the most active research fields on Earth.
Summary
Batteries work because of the interplay between:
• electron flow (electricity)
• ion migration (chemistry)
• redox reactions
• chemical potential differences
• electrode structure
Understanding this turns “batteries”
from everyday objects into quantum machines of energy storage.
Written by Leejohnston & Liora — The Lumin Archive Research Division
A Deep Dive Into Electrochemistry, Redox Flow, and Energy Storage
Everyone knows what a battery does —
it “stores energy.”
But *how* does it actually work?
Why does a battery have a fixed voltage?
Why does it die?
Why does it heat?
Why does a lithium cell explode if damaged?
This thread explains the true electrochemistry behind batteries —
from electron flow to ion migration to redox reactions.
1. A Battery Is Not a “Tank of Energy”
A battery is a chemical reactor with separated half-reactions.
Inside every battery:
• one material wants to give up electrons (oxidation)
• one wants to take electrons (reduction)
• electrons move through the circuit
• ions move inside the electrolyte to balance charge
Electricity is the movement of electrons.
Battery chemistry is the movement of ions.
2. The Anode & Cathode — The Real Roles
In a discharging battery:
Anode = oxidation site (loses electrons)
Cathode = reduction site (gains electrons)
Electrons flow:
anode → external circuit → cathode
Ions flow:
through the electrolyte
to maintain electrical neutrality.
This double-flow system is why batteries work.
3. Why Batteries Have a Fixed Voltage
Voltage comes from the difference in chemical potential energy
between the two electrodes.
Each chemical pair has a natural “eager to react” difference.
Examples:
• alkaline AA → 1.5 V
• nickel–metal hydride → 1.2 V
• Li-ion → 3.6–3.7 V
• LiFePO₄ → 3.2 V
• lead–acid → 2.1 V
Voltage is NOT about:
• size
• shape
• current
• capacity
It is entirely about chemistry.
4. The Electrolyte — Not Fuel, Not Power, Just Ions
The electrolyte does NOT conduct electrons.
It ONLY allows ion migration:
• Li⁺ in lithium batteries
• H⁺ or OH⁻ in alkaline cells
• SO₄²⁻ in lead–acid
It completes the internal circuit.
Without ion flow, electrons would stop moving →
battery instantly dies.
5. Why Batteries Die Over Time
Two main reasons:
A. Reactants run out
Electrode materials are consumed or converted into new compounds.
B. Internal resistance increases
Because of:
• electrode crystal growth
• SEI layer thickening
• electrolyte degradation
• dendrites
• corrosion
This reduces voltage under load.
Batteries don’t “run out of electricity” —
they run out of chemistry.
6. Lithium-Ion Batteries — Why They’re Special
Li-ion cells use:
• reversible intercalation chemistry
• layered crystal structures
• extremely high redox potentials
This gives:
• high energy density
• long cycle life
• stable voltage curves
But also risks:
• thermal runaway
• dendrite formation
• fires if punctured or overheated
Lithium cells store a LOT of energy in a small space —
which is both their power and their danger.
7. Charge & Discharge Are NOT Opposites
Charging forces electrons backward:
cathode → external supply → anode
At the same time:
• ions move the opposite way
• electrode structures re-expand
• crystal phases change
Charging is “rewinding a chemical reaction”
using external energy.
8. Capacity vs Voltage vs Current — The Three Battery Myths
Voltage → determined by chemistry
Capacity (mAh / Ah) → determined by amount of active material
Current (A) → determined by internal resistance & electrode design
They are independent.
A huge battery can have 1.5 V.
A tiny button cell can have 3 V.
9. Why Batteries Heat Up
Heat is produced when:
• internal resistance turns electrical power into heat
• fast charging forces ions through narrow channels
• chemical side-reactions occur
This is why:
• fast charging creates more heat
• old batteries run hotter
• low temperatures reduce ion mobility
10. The Future of Battery Chemistry
Research focuses on:
• solid-state lithium
• sodium-ion batteries
• sulfur cathodes
• silicon anodes
• flow batteries
• metal–air systems
• ultracapacitor hybrids
Each aims to increase:
• cycle life
• safety
• power density
• sustainability
Electrochemistry is one of the most active research fields on Earth.
Summary
Batteries work because of the interplay between:
• electron flow (electricity)
• ion migration (chemistry)
• redox reactions
• chemical potential differences
• electrode structure
Understanding this turns “batteries”
from everyday objects into quantum machines of energy storage.
Written by Leejohnston & Liora — The Lumin Archive Research Division