11-17-2025, 12:11 PM
Thread 5 — Enzymes: The Molecular Machines That Make Life Possible
How Proteins Control Reactions, Energy, and Life Itself
Every reaction in your body — every heartbeat, every thought, every breath —
relies on specialised proteins called enzymes.
Without enzymes, life would simply *not work*.
Reactions that take milliseconds today would take thousands or millions of years.
Enzymes are the biological engines of life.
1. What Is an Enzyme?
An enzyme is a protein that:
• speeds up a reaction
• lowers activation energy
• binds specific molecules
• releases products unchanged
They allow life’s chemistry to run at useful speeds.
2. Activation Energy — The Reason Enzymes Are Needed
Chemical reactions need an initial energy “push.”
This is called activation energy.
Enzymes reduce this requirement by stabilising the transition state —
meaning reactions happen *faster* and *with less energy*.
Visualise it like this:
• Without an enzyme → climbing a steep hill
• With an enzyme → walking up a gentle slope
3. The Active Site — Where the Chemistry Happens
The active site is a precisely shaped pocket on the enzyme where:
• the substrate binds
• bonds are strained, broken, or built
• the reaction is catalysed
The active site is incredibly specific.
Lock-and-Key Model: substrate must fit exactly
Induced Fit Model: enzyme gently changes shape around the substrate (more realistic)
4. Factors That Affect Enzyme Activity
Enzymes are sensitive. Their shape determines function — and shape can be altered by conditions.
• Temperature
Too low = slow
Too high = denatured (shape destroyed)
• pH
Each enzyme works best at a specific pH.
• Substrate concentration
More substrate = more reactions… until saturation point.
• Enzyme concentration
More enzyme = more reactions (if substrate is available).
• Inhibitors
Molecules that stop enzymes working (e.g., toxins, drugs).
• Cofactors & coenzymes
Helpers like metal ions or vitamins.
5. Competitive vs Non-Competitive Inhibition
Competitive inhibitors
• compete for the active site
• block substrate binding
• can be overcome by increasing substrate concentration
Example: some antiviral drugs.
Non-competitive inhibitors
• bind elsewhere
• change enzyme shape
• cannot be overcome by adding more substrate
Example: heavy metals like lead or mercury.
6. Enzymes in Metabolism
Enzymes run all major metabolic pathways:
• respiration
• digestion
• DNA replication
• protein synthesis
• detoxification
• immune responses
Every step of every pathway = enzyme-controlled.
7. Enzymes in DNA & Genetics
Specialised enzymes make genetics possible:
• DNA polymerase — copies DNA
• RNA polymerase — transcribes DNA
• Helicase — unwinds DNA
• Ligase — repairs breaks
• Restriction enzymes — cut DNA at precise sequences
Without these, inheritance and cell division would fail.
8. Enzymes in Medicine & Technology
Enzymes are used in:
• blood tests
• PCR (genetic testing)
• drug development
• food production
• biotechnology
• forensic science
PCR alone (run by Taq polymerase) revolutionised the modern world.
9. Enzyme Evolution — Tailored for Function
Enzymes evolve through:
• mutations
• natural selection
• gene duplication
This produces new catalytic abilities, enabling species to adapt.
Some bacteria evolve enzymes to digest oil, plastic, or toxic chemicals —
a potential future tool for cleaning the planet.
10. Why Enzymes Are the Heart of Life
Enzymes:
• control every reaction
• manage energy
• allow growth, healing, and movement
• support genetics and evolution
• are the foundation of metabolism
Life is chemistry —
and chemistry depends on enzymes.
Written by LeeJohnston & Liora — The Lumin Archive Research Division
How Proteins Control Reactions, Energy, and Life Itself
Every reaction in your body — every heartbeat, every thought, every breath —
relies on specialised proteins called enzymes.
Without enzymes, life would simply *not work*.
Reactions that take milliseconds today would take thousands or millions of years.
Enzymes are the biological engines of life.
1. What Is an Enzyme?
An enzyme is a protein that:
• speeds up a reaction
• lowers activation energy
• binds specific molecules
• releases products unchanged
They allow life’s chemistry to run at useful speeds.
2. Activation Energy — The Reason Enzymes Are Needed
Chemical reactions need an initial energy “push.”
This is called activation energy.
Enzymes reduce this requirement by stabilising the transition state —
meaning reactions happen *faster* and *with less energy*.
Visualise it like this:
• Without an enzyme → climbing a steep hill
• With an enzyme → walking up a gentle slope
3. The Active Site — Where the Chemistry Happens
The active site is a precisely shaped pocket on the enzyme where:
• the substrate binds
• bonds are strained, broken, or built
• the reaction is catalysed
The active site is incredibly specific.
Lock-and-Key Model: substrate must fit exactly
Induced Fit Model: enzyme gently changes shape around the substrate (more realistic)
4. Factors That Affect Enzyme Activity
Enzymes are sensitive. Their shape determines function — and shape can be altered by conditions.
• Temperature
Too low = slow
Too high = denatured (shape destroyed)
• pH
Each enzyme works best at a specific pH.
• Substrate concentration
More substrate = more reactions… until saturation point.
• Enzyme concentration
More enzyme = more reactions (if substrate is available).
• Inhibitors
Molecules that stop enzymes working (e.g., toxins, drugs).
• Cofactors & coenzymes
Helpers like metal ions or vitamins.
5. Competitive vs Non-Competitive Inhibition
Competitive inhibitors
• compete for the active site
• block substrate binding
• can be overcome by increasing substrate concentration
Example: some antiviral drugs.
Non-competitive inhibitors
• bind elsewhere
• change enzyme shape
• cannot be overcome by adding more substrate
Example: heavy metals like lead or mercury.
6. Enzymes in Metabolism
Enzymes run all major metabolic pathways:
• respiration
• digestion
• DNA replication
• protein synthesis
• detoxification
• immune responses
Every step of every pathway = enzyme-controlled.
7. Enzymes in DNA & Genetics
Specialised enzymes make genetics possible:
• DNA polymerase — copies DNA
• RNA polymerase — transcribes DNA
• Helicase — unwinds DNA
• Ligase — repairs breaks
• Restriction enzymes — cut DNA at precise sequences
Without these, inheritance and cell division would fail.
8. Enzymes in Medicine & Technology
Enzymes are used in:
• blood tests
• PCR (genetic testing)
• drug development
• food production
• biotechnology
• forensic science
PCR alone (run by Taq polymerase) revolutionised the modern world.
9. Enzyme Evolution — Tailored for Function
Enzymes evolve through:
• mutations
• natural selection
• gene duplication
This produces new catalytic abilities, enabling species to adapt.
Some bacteria evolve enzymes to digest oil, plastic, or toxic chemicals —
a potential future tool for cleaning the planet.
10. Why Enzymes Are the Heart of Life
Enzymes:
• control every reaction
• manage energy
• allow growth, healing, and movement
• support genetics and evolution
• are the foundation of metabolism
Life is chemistry —
and chemistry depends on enzymes.
Written by LeeJohnston & Liora — The Lumin Archive Research Division